The History of the Ottoman Empire

May 19, 2021

The History of the Ottoman Empire

in their first 100 years due to their

impressive a👇bilities to take advantage

of their weaker neighbors

and due to the massive mistakes made by

kingdoms of the balkans

and other christian powers including the

byzantine empire

the ottomans will rise from a small

bailic to a regional power

and they will use this position as a

stepping stone to expand even more

the conquering force began around the

year 1299

when osman the first a muslim leader

from the town of sogut anatolia

styled himself as supreme leader or

sultan

following a string of raids led by osman

and his ghazi troops against their

byzantine opposition

the name of the empire ottoman is

derived from the name of its first

leader and founder

osman whose name was actually uthman in

arabic

left behind a scarce amount of

information about his life

but gave the world an empire in his name

consequently due to the lack of reliable

contemporary sources about the muslim

leader

current historians struggle to determine

what tales have been fabricated over the

years

and which ones are in fact true

according to ottoman lore

osmond the first was the son of urtigral

and grandson of sulaiman shah

both of whom were from the k tribe of

oghs turks

although the latter connection has been

debated by ottoman genealogists

nonetheless osman the first was the man

responsible for creating

the first foundations of the 600-year

running

empire taking advantage of the

disintegration

seljuk dynasty in iran and mesopotamia

which was vanquished in 1293

osman began expanding his territory

through anatolia

as the chief rival to the byzantine

christians

by the start of the 14th century the

newly founded ottoman empire began to

spread

bi-directionally approaching the sea of

marmara

and along the sikaria river

unfortunately for the eager conquerors

their siege equipment was insufficient

making it momentarily impossible for

them to capture some of the bigger

byzantine cities and territories

such as constantinople it wasn't until

1326 that the ottomans were able to

capture the city of bursa

which would later be styled their new

capital in 1335.

around the time of this victory the

first sultan osman the first passed away

leaving his son orham as the second

sultan of the ottoman empire

under orhan's reign the turks were now

able to start

strengthening their power and authority

after seizing

bursa where the tome of osman the first

still remains

as part of his military bolstering orhan

went to his brother elaiden

for advice aladin suggested that orhan

create an army of men who were paid and

trained infantrymen

this is opposed to the method of the

predecessor's armies which were made up

of contingents and volunteers who only

came together for the campaign or battle

at hand

orhan enacted this new strategy but

quickly became dissatisfied

and decided to look to a relative

through marriage khandari kara halil

for new guidance condarli came up with

the idea for what later would be known

as the janissaries

the body of troops was to be made up of

children from christian families

in territories that had been conquered

by the ottomans which would be converted

to islam

and trained as elite infantrymen and

slaves to the sultan

making up the first modern standing army

in europe

the janissaries were known for their

extreme loyalty to the sultan

ensured by strict policies and rules

applied to them throughout their service

such as the outlaw of marriage while the

janissary troops weren't considered to

have truly been established

until the rule of murad the first the

introductory steps were made during

orhan's time of consolidation

also on the mind of the second sultan

was expansion

this became a heavier focus in 1331

with the capture of iznik following a

few years later by the seizure of ismet

in 1337

and then the taking of uskadar in 1338

only seven years after the latest of

those successes

orhan was then able to occupy the

principality of karasi

around which time he also became an ally

to john vi

cantacinus the later byzantine emperor

through this new union orhan was

additionally able to gain permission to

raid the region of thrace

a goal of the ottomans of course being

to capture this area and marry the

daughter of kanta gazenas

theodora furthermore under the command

of suleiman pasha

one of orhan's sons the ottomans spread

their control to gallipoli

in 1354 despite kantikazennis's attempts

to peacefully remove them in response to

byzantine fears

the raids throughout gallipoli had also

brought in remarkable rewards

and treasures to the ottomans which

attracted the attention of thousands of

turks around anatolia who wished to join

the empire's forces

orhan refused to give up this new

territory that he claimed was gifted to

him by

allah causing considerable backlash for

the now emperor kantikazennis

which unintentionally helped lead to his

downfall

and turmoil within byzantium things

within the ottoman world

also began to shift in 1362

following the death of sultan orhan who

was roughly 80 years old at the time

his son sulaiman had died a few years

prior in a hunting accident

and it is believed that the toll of this

loss may have led to orhan's sudden

demise

regardless murad the first another son

of orhan

was next in line to become the empire's

third sultan

which he did with a dramatic entrance

wasting no time after taking the reigns

murad continued the work of conquering

thrace by seizing adrian opal

and making it the new capital of the

ottoman empire

even with the confidence shown by this

swift action taken at the command of the

new ruler the ottomans continued to

avoid an attempt at capturing

constantinople

due to their sustained lack of proper

siege equipment and the sturdiness of

the city's thick outer walls

opting to stay with a better path for

success murad kept his focus on easier

expansion with more promising results

over the next decade the ottomans

captured more and more territories

throughout the balkans

even gaining some of their new control

with little resistance

after the battle of maritza in which

they defeated their christian rivals

near tournament

on the maritza river even going as far

as capturing macedonia

murad the first was now readily

broadening and strengthening the ottoman

power across the balkan region

by 1382 the eager sultan began to put

pressure on bulgaria

first convincing emperor ivan shishman

to surrender his country as a vassal

becoming part of a new policy enacted by

murad

in europe where the native rulers of

existing principalities

would remain in their place if they

accepted the sovereignty of the sultan

accompanied by the provision of

contingents for the ottoman army

seemingly not giving importance to this

agreement murad and his troops then

continued pushing on to seize sophia

parrot and niss these decisive actions

led to the next major victory for the

empire

allowing them to conquer serbia after

the famed battle of kosovo

in 1389

while both armies were severely

deteriorated and the leaders on either

side were killed during the conflict

the ottomans still had more troops

elsewhere who could be called upon

and were granted overall victory as the

domino effect of acquiring

serbian principality ensuing the death

of sultan morad the first

now under the reigns of baizid the first

one of his sons

the ottomans were forced to return to

anatolia

and deal with the repercussions of their

calamitous victory efforts

on top of restoration duties bazid was

also

suddenly faced with an increasing threat

from the principality of karma

murad had previously taken some minor

steps to avoid the new power

which was built atop the remains of the

fallen seljuk dynasty

from attempting to take his newly seized

territories but that was about all the

attention he'd given it

bazid was unable to ignore the rising

concern by this point

with caramen moving to the forefront of

ottoman focus

after the capture of territory and

gurmeon

in an attempt to keep his turkish

followers from siding with the potential

rivals

bazid chose to make peace with caramen

before moving on to capture bulgaria

and finally venture the daunting task of

laying siege to constantinople

in response to the latter act the

christians undertook a crusade

with the goal of defeating the invading

ottoman forces

this resulted in the battle of necopolis

in 1396

which was won by bayezid and his troops

massacring the crusader army that was

made up of hungarians

germans french and other christian

allies

presumably feeling confident after the

success at necopolis bazid and his men

returned to annex carmen

in 1397 despite the previously agreed on

peace treaty

the sultan's reach now spanned across

the balkans and into asia making him one

of the most powerful muslim leaders at

the time

his goal seemed to be that of his

predecessors and future successors

expand while there is relatively very

little information dating back to the

first 100 years of ottoman power

we do know that the period of time from

1300

through 1400 served as a springboard for

the empire's growth and prosperity that

was to come

[Music]

the start of the 15th century in the

ottoman empire

marked the final years of bayezid the

first reign

as sultan in 1400

major tensions began to rise between the

ottoman leader

and the turco mongol warlord by the name

of timur

this once cold war reached a heated

climax in 1402

at the battle of ankara

while on his way back through anatolia

to confront the threat of his powerful

rival

bayezid was caught off guard by timur

and his troops

as they besieged the city of ankara

withholding the only source of water for

the ottoman troops

and forcing them to engage in battle

by the end of the conflict timur's army

prevailed

while baezid and his sons attempted to

make an escape

bayezid himself and two of his sons musa

and mustafa

chaleby were captured by timur though

the rest were successful in their

getaway

musou was released in 1403 and mustafa

was held in samarkand

until the death of tamur in 1405.

at which point he went into hiding

within the territories of some of his

allies

less fortunately bayezid had passed away

shortly after he was taken into custody

it is debated whether he was treated

well by timur and his men

or not but either way this was the end

of the fourth ottoman sultan's rule

after baezid's downfall the leadership

of the empire was thrown into complete

turmoil

the remaining sons of the late sultan

now sparked a decade-long civil war

referred to as the ottoman interregnum

tsumer had confirmed mehmed cha lebe

as the new sultan before he had passed

but isa

musa and sulliman were unhappy with this

decision

the brothers all felt that they

themselves were entitled to the ottoman

throne

and therefore did not recognize mehmed's

authority

sulliman had established his capital in

edern

formerly known as adrian opal and

extended his power throughout all of

thrace

and the southeastern reign of europe

stretching down to northern greece

mehmed centered his control in the city

of amasia

meanwhile isa and musa fought for

control over bursa

eventually leading to isa obtaining

dominion

this rise of power incited a new

conflict between isa

and mehmed and after multiple defeats

isa sought refuge in constantinople as

mehmed now took command of bursa

not long later another battle between

the brothers ensued at karasi

now sending isa fleeing to karamon it is

said that isa was later killed

after being spotted in a public bath by

order of mehmed

sulliman who had backed issa during the

strife with mehmed

now went on to successfully capture

bursa and later ankara

from the previously victorious brother

for the next few years

an alliance formed and flourished

between mehmed

and musa the latter being sent across

the black sea

to serve as sultan to the european part

of the empire

sulliman touted an alliance with manuel

the second paleologos

and eventually won over the serbs by the

end of the battle of cosmidian

in 1410 during this battle

muso was defeated by sulliman though the

tide would shortly turn once again

[Music]

due to apparent temperamental issues

sulliman found himself

rapidly losing allies and support

taking advantage of the defections and

abandonment on his brother's side

musa found triumph at edern in 1411.

sulliman attempted to escape into

byzantine protection

but was murdered on his way leaving musa

and mehmed as co-sultans of the ottoman

empire

clearly unhappy about the byzantine

emperor's loyalty to suliman

musa decided to lay siege to

constantinople

as retaliation emperor manuel in turn

requested assistance from mehmed who

made multiple attempts to defend him

in a blatant breach of the agreement

made with musa

unable to stay in constantinople for

long though

mehmed had to return to his own

territory in order to deal with a mutiny

before looking to the serbian autocrat

stefan lazarovich for help

now returning to face his brother with

new strength

mehmed and his army met with musa and

his forces

at shimerlu resulting in a defeat for

musa

and his later capture and murder finally

freed of the constant looming menace of

his brother's attempts to seize his

power

mehmed chaleby became sultan mehmed the

first

accepting complete sovereignty over the

empire

and uniting those who had been divided

during the long-running civil war

throughout the rest of his reign mehmed

focused on consolidating power across

both anatolia

and the european region he was faced

with several challenges along the way

including a dispute with mustafa his

remaining brother

who had finally come out of hiding a

theologian and revolutionary by the name

of sheikh bed redeem

also posed a threat to mehmed's

authority sparking a discord that would

last

four years until the agitator was

finally captured

and hanged mehmed's tumultuous rule

finally came to an end with his death in

1421

leaving control of the empire to his son

murad ii

during the start of marad's time as

sultan manuel ii

pali logos made a deal with mustafa

chaleby

to free him from exile he had been

forced into

before muhammad the first's death

the byzantine emperor recognized mustafa

as the true heir to what had once been

based the first throne but he only found

success for a short while

before murad finally ended mustafa's

campaign

with his execution attention was now

directed toward punishing the byzantines

for this unprovoked hostility in an

attempt to do

just that murad decided to besiege

constantinople

but was recalled back to bursa after

manuel

attempted to utilize murad's 13 year old

rebellious brother

to fight back against him the boy's

revolt was subdued

and murad was able to refocus his

efforts towards fortifying his dominion

by re-establishing his authority over

the anatolian vassals

and principalities as well as

continued effort to expand further into

europe

conflicts with venice serbia hungary

and other non-allies became a regular

occurrence

near the end of the 1420s in 1444

murad faced a christian coalition of

crusaders

at the battle of varna led by john

hunyadi

the hungarians and their allies were

soundly defeated

in what could only be deemed an

embarrassing retreat

one notable detail of this battle is the

fact that vlad dracul

the current valejian voivode had sent a

small contingent

under his eldest son to assist hanyadi

and his crusaders

despite the fact that murad was holding

dracul's two

youngest sons as hostages to ensure

allegiance from villah

not much came of this situation until

later

but it serves as a clear demonstration

of the frequent betrayals

that plagued the times before the battle

of varna

murad had actually abdicated his throne

to one of his sons

mehmed ii displeased with this immense

responsibility as merely a child

mehmed urged his father to return and

lead their troops against the christian

forces

that aimed to take advantage of a young

new sultan

after undertaking the task and trouncing

the crusading effort

murad went back into retirement until he

was required to return

in order to quell a janissary revolt it

wasn't long before the elder sultan was

once again

forced to meet the troops of christian

europe

this time on the battlefield of kosovo

still following the lead of john hunyadi

a union of hungarian valleji and

moldavian

and other allied troops attempted to

execute a new strike against the

ottomans

in an effort to avenge their previous

defeat at varna

caught off guard by murad and his troops

who had intercepted the crusaders at the

kosovo pole field

john hunyadi and his army faced another

humiliating loss murad was now able to

finish out his

reign by addressing the issue of timur's

son

shah rak and gaining command over the

leaders of the churum amassia region

in addition to an attempt though

unsuccessful

at defeating the albanian forces of

skanderberg

at the castle of kruge

by the end of 1451 murad had fallen ill

and passed away leaving mehmed ii as

sultan once again

mehmed ii later deemed mehmed the

conqueror

for the remarkable accomplishments

during his reign

immediately looked to complete the task

of finally capturing constantinople

as many of his predecessors had ventured

to do

in a ploy to curb any distractions

mehmed signed

peace treaties with both hungary and

venice

while preparing his navy for the future

siege of byzantium's heart

in 1453 with an army of around

80 000 troops or more over 100 naval

ships

and something the previous sultans

lacked cannons

mehmed began the campaign that would

eventually be called the fall of

constantinople

the siege lasted over 50 days and

resulted in a concise victory for the

ottomans

who now declared constantinople their

new capital

mehmed also styled himself the caesar of

the roman empire

a title that was denied to him by the

roman catholic church

but accepted by the eastern orthodox

church

the young sultan then captured the final

remaining byzantine states

and pressed further on into europe in a

reign marked by drastic government

changes

creating a more centralized bureaucracy

and appointing only those who could be

loyal to him and his agenda to his court

as well as continual back and forths

between his empire

and the european christians one of the

most prominent storylines

may be the relationship between mehmed

and vlad iii dracula

as previously mentioned two of vlad

dracul's sons

had been held hostage by murad ii

these boys radhu and vlad iii dracula

grew up alongside mehmed and each

developed starkly different

relationships with him

while radu would choose to stay within

the ottoman empire

and serve as a lifelong friend and ally

to mehmed

vlad became a persistent opponent who

fought against his contemporaries will

until his final breath while some claim

that his long-standing strife

with the voivode of the much smaller

region and military

shows a weakness in mehmed it instead

gives us a profound

look at his personality and mindset

before

ultimately pulling back from his

attempts to overpower

and defeat vlad dracula mehmed is

recorded to have said that he

could not take land away from a man who

does such marvelous things

and surely a man who had accomplished

this is worthy of greater

things these statements from the sultan

himself

display not only a level of respect for

his adversary

but also his confidence in the ottoman

empire as a whole

during his rule mehmed was willing to

walk away from a conflict

that he saw no near success in because

he was head of essentially two

empires having more or less absorbed the

byzantine empire

and knew that his power could not truly

be stifled so

easily this tone of tolerance extended

past

mehmed himself and can be seen again

during the reign of his son

bayezid ii who claimed the throne after

his father's death in 1481.

the start of bayezid ii's term as sultan

is slightly stained by a conflict with

his brother

chem once his position was secured

beyond began to make some changes to his

father's policy

and put a strong emphasis on domestic

politics

throughout both the east and west

establishing a more well-ordered system

though not remembered entirely for the

conflicts he engaged

in bayezid did put notable effort into

conquering new venetian territories

and balkan lands nonetheless the most

remarkable decision

under bayezid ii to round out the 15th

century

may have been his reaction to the

expulsion of both

muslims and jews from spain in 1492

bayezid condemned ferdinand of aragon

and

isabella the first sending the ottoman

navy over to safely relocate the

banished muslims

and jews to his own territories

he told every leader under his authority

that they were to welcome all of the

refugees

and would be punished by death if they

were to treat the jews any differently

than their muslim counterparts this

extraordinary act

led to an increase of new skills

enhancements

and ideas being brought into the empire

which resulted in heightened success

for the welcoming sultan by the end of

the 1400s

bayezid ii remained on the ottoman

throne

as a well-respected and prosperous

leader

earning the epithet of the just

bazid may be one of the more underrated

rulers of the empire today

he just like those throughout the rest

of the century

accomplished noteworthy feats that

helped to continue the propulsion of the

ottoman empire

and its power into the many many years

to come

at the onset of the 16th century in the

ottoman realm

bayezid ii was already locked in an

intense naval war with the venetians

that would last until 1503 tackling the

new century with a desire for further

consolidation the ottomans

under the command of admiral kamal rice

found triumph by the end of this turkish

venetian war

ultimately forcing the venetians to once

again

come to a peace agreement with the turks

while this victory served well for the

continued fortifying of ottoman power in

europe

over in anatolia the environment was

becoming

increasingly unstable by the year of

1511

supporters of the savaphid dynasty began

to rebel

against the growing dominance of the

ottoman empire

though they were forced to back down

after the defeat of their leader

shakulu meanwhile bitter dissension

over the succession of the throne

developed between baizid's sons

salim and ahmed as both candidates

attempted to rally support from

different territories and leaders

the sultan's advisors and janissary

corps began to show a preference towards

saleem

concurrent with baizid's increasing

concern about the possibility of ahmed

seeking

aid from shah ismail in persia

finally in 1512 sultan baized ii

made his decision by abdicating to salim

who would later have his brother put to

death

to avoid any further conflict

bazid passed away only a month after his

retirement swiftly upon ascension to the

throne

sultan saleem the first eradicated any

potential threats to his position

by having his brothers and nephews

executed

allowing himself to focus solely on any

external dangers

one of these hazards came in the form of

the shah ismail

and his kazilbash turkmen adherents over

in anatolia

briskly putting an end to a revolt

brought by the kazubash

salim then turned to ismail himself

subsequently overpowering the shah's

forces at the battle of

chalderan in 1514

while the safafid troops consisted of

simple cavalrymen

saleem's army which was upwards of one

hundred thousand men

was able to rely on muskets and cannons

by the end of the clash the ottomans

moved on to seize tabriz

which had been the savaphic capital

[Music]

then continued toward the mamluk dynasty

of egypt

emerging victorious from both the battle

of marge de pig

in 1516

and the battle of radinia in 1517

against the mamluk forces the ottomans

in doing so were able to bring

egypt hijaz and all of the levant

into their empire

thus by selim the first death in 1520

not only had the cultural and

geographical nucleus of the empire

shifted

but it is believed that his reign

brought forth an expansion

of roughly 70 percent

following the passing of his father

salim's only son

suliman the first became the next and

later widely revered sultan of the

ottoman

empire known in the west as the

magnificent

and by the ottomans themselves as the

lawgiver

birthed a time of immense military legal

and cultural change within the empire

while the chief sharia law or sacred law

was not something that could be changed

by the sultan

suleiman was able to do some notable

restructuring of the canon

or system of criminal land tenure and

taxation legislation

this new final revision became known as

the ottoman laws

and would remain intact for the next

three centuries to come

sulliman also made adjustments to laws

that affected varying religions within

the empire

taking a similar approach of tolerance

to the one of the late bazid ii

including but not limited to the formal

condemning of blood libels issued

against the jewish population

simultaneously as these legislative and

cultural shifts

transpired within the empire outside of

the sovereign borders

build out continued almost immediately

taking aim at the christian powers

in both europe and the mediterranean

suleiman the first

led his forces to a victory at belgrade

in 1521

followed by the long-awaited seizure of

rhodes in 1522

four years later engaged with the

hungarian troops the ottomans not only

vanquished their opponent

but also executed king louis ii of

hungary himself

when sulliman came across the slain body

of the hungarian monarch he remarked

may allah be merciful to him and punish

those who misled his inexperience

i came indeed in arms against him but it

was not my wish that he should be thus

cut off

before he scarcely tasted the sweets of

life

and royalty this unexpected void in

hungary's authority

sparked a new conflict for the throne

between the habsburg archduke of austria

and the transylvania voivode

amidst prevalent opposition to the

prospect of habsburg control

the ottoman sultan chose to accept enosh

as the new vassal king of hungary

as an added venture to undermine any

subsequent habsburg meddling

sulliman led another campaign in 1529

this time aimed at vienna

unfortunately for the turks an outbreak

of troubles plagued their offensive

and forced the sultan to call off the

feudal advances

largely undeterred by 1532

the ottomans tried yet again to assail

vienna

but made very minimal progress after

being stopped by the defending forces

at the siege of guns thus giving

sullivan's belief that vienna was not a

prize to be won

so easily a peace agreement was finally

reached

in constantinople between archduke

ferdinand the first

of austria and the ottoman sultan the

following year

the terms of the truce were decided upon

by both sides

however it did not take long for the

integrity of the agreement to

deteriorate

when enosh passed away in 1540 any

remaining peace between the ottomans and

austrians

seemed to shatter altogether throughout

a series of campaigns and annexations in

1541

through 1543 hungary was eventually

split into three

individual hungaries on one side sat the

habsburg hungary

which was adjacent to the ottoman vassal

state of transylvania

and neighboring the indefinitely

garrisoned ottoman hungary

the succeeding 19 years marked a

vigorous

on and off war within the region forcing

a long bout of peace negotiations

in 1562 all the while

as the discord between the christian and

muslim sides played out in one continent

the ottomans were also facing hostility

over in the middle east back in 1534

sulliman launched the first of the three

repetitive campaigns against the persian

opposition

the ottomans would continue to push back

against the shah

and his forces participating in a

prolonged chess

game of territory exchange until the

final incursion ended with a peace

treaty in 1544

securing various important gains for the

ottoman side

during this time the ottoman naval might

began to flourish

under admiral care aldine taking on

european allied forces

near the coasts of greece with great

success

the range of the turks naval influence

could be felt as far as the

indian ocean where they came in direct

competition with the portuguese

ascendancy

in addition sulliman's reign also

expanded the scope of the ottoman impact

to north africa and the mughal empire

rounding out a long and prosperous

period of development and consolidation

though not without the occasional

shortcoming sulliman spent his final

months at the siege of sigetvar

which resulted in a taxing victory for

the ottomans

losing tens of thousands of men in the

process

as well as their sultan

with his brothers having died or been

executed previously

salim ii became the new leader of the

ottoman empire

in 1566 the first of many who would fall

into the same pattern

salim's dominance and true authority was

often undercut by the sway of mehmed

sakholu

his grand vizier and the women of his

harem

most notably his wife thoroughly

uninterested in a life saturated in

politics

the new sultan chose to leave much of

the governing duties in the hands of the

grand vizier

nonetheless salim's reign was marked by

the exchange of war for peace

in regions previously contested by his

father

the first treaty was signed in 1568

creating a new wave of non-aggression

with austria

mirroring the last ceasefire between the

ottomans

and cevaphids while a rebellion in yemen

crept up shortly after it was quickly

subdued

the only main conflicts faced during the

period of salim's rule

played out after the capture of venetian

territory of cyprus

in 1570 the same year that a peace

treaty with russia

under the rule of ivan the terrible was

reached in constantinople

subsequently due to the aforementioned

antagonism in europe

the battle of lepanto ensued in 1571

which gifted only temporary victory to

venice

until the following year by 1574

the ottomans had secured both cyprus and

tunisia

before the passing of sultan salim ii

leaving the empire in the hands of murad

iii

in drastic contrast with his father

murad ruled over a period of both

conflict and decline of coherence within

the empire

seizing fez from the portuguese in 1578

and then broadening his authority in the

persian region

the sultan eventually launched a new

surge of combat with austria

that would last into the following

century during this

time a notable alliance was formed

between the ottoman vassals with the

austrians

despite the clear breach of terms with

the turkish sovereignty

the period of 1570 until 1590

also marked a relaunch of hostilities

with the safafit dynasty

meanwhile the state of affairs within

the ottoman borders fared no better

the constant conflicts demanded higher

taxes

prompting inflation and a rapid

dwindling of the overall permanence

inside the empire even causing a slump

in the reliability of the janissary

troops

as only the second sultan following

salim ii

to never lead his troops into battle and

to have his power undermined by the

women of his harem

murad's most impressive accomplishment

may have been securing a diplomatic

relationship

with queen elizabeth the first of

england

arguing that the islamic and protestant

worlds had more in common than

either did to roman catholicism the

sultan was able to form a trade

agreement with the english monarch in

1581.

granting priority to england's merchants

within ottoman territory

these foreign relations outlived the

sultan himself

being passed from the hands of murad iii

to mehmed iii

as the final sultan of the 16th century

mehmed iii took on the growing alliance

between his european vassals

and austrian enemy initially facing a

loss

though quickly bouncing back to defeat

the habsburg

and transylvanian forces at the battle

of koreshtech

in 1596

the end of the 1500s brought only

slightly improved luck

as a peace agreement was reached between

the ottoman empire

and one of the vassal leaders

mihai the brave who had found prior

success

in fighting off the turkish troops

sultan mehmed iii continued to hold the

ottoman throne into the 17th century

and would reign for another three years

to come

the ottoman empire in the hands of

sultan mehmed iii

began the 17th century having made peace

with notable challengers such as

michael the brave who now ruled over

moldavia and transylvania

uniting them under one flag however

conflict still persisted elsewhere

barely into the sixteen hundreds the

ottomans captured the fortress of nagi

kanitsa

having to defend their new hold on the

following year

at the siege of nagia konitsa against

the habsburg and allied forces

while continuing to participate in the

13-year war against the habsburg

monarchy

the turks were also constrained to

engage with repeated revolts

that surfaced at the start of the

century adding a

third front to the ottoman's current

situation in the fall of 1603

war broke out once again with the

savapha dynasty of persia

making the death of sultan mehmed iii

that december

even heavier a loss for the empire

at only 13 years old ahmed the first

was next to take the title of sultan

following his father's death

likely due to his age sultan ahmed made

unprecedented decision in favor of

sparing the life of his brother

mustafa opposing the expected act of

fratricide

demonstrated by his predecessors as a

way of avoiding future dissension over

the throne

the young sultan chose to keep mustafa

alive

an act which prevented a potential end

to the dynasty

given that ahmed had not yet fathered

any children to secede him

nonetheless getting right to work

ahmed focused his attention on the

raging ottoman safafid

war sending an army from constantinople

in june of 1604

to confront their antagonistic foe

having arrived later than they should

have the turks failed to prevent the

safavids from capturing yerevan

and advancing forward some arguably poor

decisions on the ottoman side ensued

all but throwing away a year of precious

time and opportunity

by 1605 the war continued to wage on and

prompted the turks

under the command of mehmed pasha to

form a temporary allegiance

with steven box kai prince of

transylvania

who had requested assistance from the

ottoman empire

still as a consequence of ongoing

struggles from multiple angles

including more revolts in anatolia

sultan ahmed was forced to concede to

the treaty of sithfatorak

in 1606 with austria recognizing the

habsburg emperor

as his equal and taking an axe to

ottoman expansion in europe

pressed even further to extend favorable

commercial privileges to the netherlands

france and venice the young sultan

caused a significant blow to the

empire's

forced once again to come to an

agreement with a bitter rival

near the end of 1612 the ottomans and

safavid signed the treaty of nasa pasha

surrendering all territory gained in the

1578

war back to the persians resetting the

map to that of 1555

after the peace treaty of amasia the

same year also marked a renewal of

non-violence with france

venice and england as well as a novel

trade treaty that was signed with the

dutch republic

while scrambling to create a wave of

harmony

ahmed's attempts to calm the atmosphere

within his sovereign borders through new

regulations

religious donations and architecture

were mostly overshadowed

after a rain plagued with turmoil sultan

ahmed fell ill

and passed away in november of 1617

leaving the unsteady empire under the

watchful eye of mustafa the first

in an unusual occurrence the death of

the prior sultan

left the throne open to multiple

candidates

all of which resided at the sultan's

palace

due to ahmed's son's age at the time a

court faction in favor of giving the

title to mustafa

overruled the opposition and enthroned

the new sultan

as the first brother to become sultan

ahead of their predecessor's sons

mustafa had minimal luck in

restabilizing the empire

often described as having severe mental

abnormalities

mustafa was influenced by his mother

haleem sultan

who obtained notable direct power in his

place

nonetheless after only a short rule the

sultan was ousted by another court

faction

who chose to instead replace him with

his nephew osman ii

claiming the role in 1618 aged only 14

at the time

osman ii was aware of the desperate need

to repair the current state of affairs

within the empire

the young sultan first signed the treaty

of sarav with the safavids

before personally leading an incursion

into poland

which had previously interfered with

ottoman vassal states

during the moldavian magnet wars

though another treaty was necessitated

by the ottoman's loss at the battle of

chotin in 1621

osman was undeterred from his goal to

mend the empire's prestige

blaming the debased janissary corps for

what he deemed inadequacy

during the previous ventures the sultan

decided to close their coffee shops

and slash their pay as punishment

osman was unable to follow through on a

plan to overhaul his current forces

and create a more reliable army before

the outraged janissaries rebelled

sultan osman ii was dethroned imprisoned

and subsequently strangled to death

marking the first sultan assassination

performed by the janissaries

taking advantage of his nephew's

downfall mustafa the first regained his

throne

in 1622 immediately cracking down on all

those who were involved in osman's

execution

unable to maintain any level of control

in the face of growing tensions between

the janissaries

and sapafi cavalrymen as well as a

revolt by the governor general of urzu

rum to avenge osmond

mustafa's mother ultimately supported a

move to oust her son

on the condition that he not be killed

in the process

ahmed the first eleven-year-old son

murad iv

now ascended the throne in september of

1623

though his first years as ruler were

mostly dominated by his mother

and grand viziers sultan's reign became

a beacon of hope

for the restoration of the empire's

inner amity

and foreign conflict with tenacious

ferocity

murad was known for his heavy-handed

brutality

and tendency to only loosely follow the

overarching sharia law

with the safavids now invading more

territory to the southeast

the ottomans focused this ruthless grit

back onto the war with the persians

able to seize azerbaijan tabriz and

hamadan

even baghdad in 1638 the turks then

signed

the treaty of zahab the following year

the siege of baghdad also brought a

notable meeting

between sultan murad and two ambassadors

from the magal empire

exchanging gifts and supplies before

sending a handful of ottoman troops to

accompany the magals on their own

expedition to sarat

ironically having banned alcohol tobacco

and coffee

sultan murad iv eventually succumbed to

his own alcohol addiction in 1640

seceding his brother ibrahim the first

took the throne and quickly moved to

make peace with the safavids and austria

in stark contrast by 1645

sultan ibrahim had already sparked a war

with venice

over the island of crete being a fan of

extravagance

the new sultan's rule brought with it an

increase in taxes

causing disapproval and resentment

within the region

while the grand vizier kara mustafa

pasha

had helped to correct economic

deficiencies within the empire before

his

execution in 1644 not enough had been

done

and the burden caused by ibrahim's

expensive

intrigues remained after a previous

failed attempt to depose the monarch

in favor of one of his own sons a

janissary rebellion led to the capture

of the ultimate assassination

of sultan ibrahim the first

handing the throne over to his

six-year-old son mehmed iv

sultan mehmed iv the second longest

reigning ruler of the empire

ushered in a period of short-lived

improvement

bringing about heightened expansions in

europe the ottomans managed successful

campaigns against the adversaries such

venice transylvania poland and even

russia

nevertheless at the battle of vienna in

1683

against the polish lithuanian troops and

their allies

the ottomans suffered a devastating

defeat which marked merely the beginning

of the great turkish war

against the holy league only a few years

later

sultan mehmed and his men faced another

crushing blow

at the second battle of mohawk

undergoing both a loss to their

opponents

and a mutiny from within as a

consequence

it was decided in november of 1687

that sultan mehmed iv would be ousted

and replaced by his brother

sulliman ii with the mutiny that raised

suleiman ii

to the throne still carrying on the

ottomans made a hasty attempt to fight

back against the holy league

despite losing support of the crimean

vassals

who now had to defend themselves against

a russian invasion

even so the turks were able to gain

temporary victory

as they recaptured belgrade and niche in

1690

despite a request for support being

denied in 1688

by the magal emperor aaron zeb the

ottomans put a stop to the austrian

invasion of serbia as well as a revolt

coming from macedonia and bulgaria

sullivan's luck remained

even after his own passing in june of

1691

until the death of his grand vizier cup

ruling fazil mustafa pasha

at the battle of slan kamen against the

austrians in 1691

before his death the grand vizier had

helped to establish tax reforms

and contribute to the improved treatment

of christians

under ottoman dominion having taken the

title of sultan and responsibility of

facing their opponents at the battle of

slaan kamen

ahmed ii was immediately met with major

losses of territory

caused by austrians and venetians over

the next few years

the new sultan was never able to show

complete independence of his command

and was heavily reliant on his advisors

throughout his time dealing with the

holy league

and newfound disturbances in the

provinces of levant

after a short and rather mediocre reign

sultan ahmed ii's death in 1695

at the age of 51 led to mustafa ii

son of mehmed iv being perched to round

out the 17th century

as sultan as the great turkish war

continued

sultan mustafa ii led the empire to both

victory and defeat

ending with the signing of two peace

treaties in 1699 and

1700 first came the treaty of karla vitz

drastically cutting the ottoman

influence in the balkans

and handing predominant power in the

region over to austria

the following summer the treaty of

constantinople was signed between the

ottoman turks and russia

confirming russia's capture of azov and

ending the 17th century hostilities

between the powers

with these compromises established

sultan mustafa ii

would remain on the throne for another

three years to come

the 17th century was different for the

ottomans

if previously we discussed the expansion

of this important empire between 1600

to 1700 the ottomans experienced a lot

of political turmoil and

internal crisis which led to instability

and lost

wars from now on the ottomans will focus

far less on conquests and more on

protecting their borders

the 1700s in the ottoman empire

marked a time of reform adaptation

and often on war with european powers

most notably russia the empire that had

previously been focused heavily on

outward expansion was now faced with

resolving

internal issues and defending its

possessions from new

expansionist powers new allies

new enemies and new challenges faced the

ottoman sultans over the next

century going to 1700

mustafa ii held the ottoman throne

to kick off the 18th century sultan

mustafa

signed the treaty of constantinople on

july 13

1700 ending the russia-turkish war of

1686

throughout 1700 against russian tsar

peter the great

this treaty gave azov to russia but

promised 30 years of peace between the

empires

sultan mustafa was unable to enjoy the

harmony for long though

due to the edern event in 1703

the event was a result of angered

janissary core

who disproved of sultan mustafa's choice

to return to edin

not constantinople after signing the

treaty of karlawitz

and constantinople with the holy league

mustafa also left most political

and administrative power to phase allah

effendi

who the janissaries found to be corrupt

and overbearing

when the ottomans decided to intervene

in the civil war in georgia

a unit of janissary corps was supposed

to be sent to georgia

to give the empire a military presence

in addition to the janissaries existing

displeasure

they were also now intended to join this

conflict

having not been paid for their proper

salaries

few units began to protest in

constantinople

and were quickly joined by civilians and

other soldiers

the protests turned to riots and after

phase allah affendi had the rebels group

of representatives arrested

the rioters turned their sights toward

edern

but the janissaries were unsatisfied and

as the sultan's own soldiers now joined

the protesters arriving in etern

mustafa was deposed on august 22nd 1703

and faisala efendi was assassinated

ahmed iii the brother of mustafa ii

now seized the ottoman throne and was

faced with the challenge of subduing the

rebellious troops

constantinople remained in a state of

unsettled

indignation until the appointment of a

new grand vizier

ali pasha once sultan ahmed could focus

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